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The Inevitable Dossier · Chapter One · Part 2 of 4

Byzantium, the Vikings, and the Holy Roman Empire

Constantinople’s fusion of East and West, Norse expeditions across three continents, the Carolingian Franks, India’s gift of numerals, and a thousand years of the Holy Roman Empire.

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire is truly an interesting Empire in history. My guess is that if we would dig deeper into its soul we would find solutions too many of the modern civilizations ethnic and moral problems. One can generalize and say that the Byzantine Empire merged together by the best parts of West (Mainly meaning Christianity), the best parts from the East (Islam, Muslims) along with the ancient Greek and Macedonian thoughts of nature, science and philosophy.

As the years passed, since Roman Emperor Constantine founded the Empire in 330, it looked less like the Roman Empire. The Empire covered Greece, the Balkans, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt and by the 7th century Greek had completely replaced Latin as the language of the Empire. The Byzantine emperors still thought of themselves as the successors of Caesar Augustus, but over the years Roman influence gradually disappeared. Within the Byzantine Empire old Greek ideas flourished which led to a multi-ethnic Empire which over bridged between religious boarders. In the 11th century Byzantine Empire experience large numbers of Turkish immigrants that recently had become Muslims.

Some historians say the Byzantine Emperor feared Muslims would soon overpower his Christian Empire and therefore he asked the leader of the Christian Church to assist in a holy war against the Turks. However, there are other historians who say that the Roman Catholic Church saw the increasing Byzantine Empire as a threat and therefore launched a holy war. The latter seems more likely as the Russian Orthodox Catholic Patriarch and Roman Catholic Pope had mutually excommunicated each other in 1054. This excommunication would be active as late as to the mid 20th century.

In year 1095, Pope Urban II launched the first of many Crusades. This one was aimed to free Byzantine Empire from the Muslim threat and possibly also from the Orthodox Catholics. Soldiers from Western Europe, for the first time ever, left their homes to free the Byzantine Empire from the threat. It was this initiative who exposed new and different cultures before the travelers that later would lead to the “Renaissance”.

Roman Catholics Attack the Orthodox Church?

Roman Catholic Crusaders conquered Constantinople in the year 1204. This must be mapped together with the establishment of Orthodox Church in Russia about two centuries before. One can wonder, was the establishment in Russia a way to flee from the Roman Catholic threat? Turks eventually conquered the whole Byzantine Empire in 1543 and made it a part of their “Ottoman Empire”. Constantinople is today more known as Istanbul, Turkey.

The Vikings

First let’s sort out things about the word “Viking”. It is commonly known to derive from the Scandinavian word “vik”, meaning “bay”, “creek” or “inlet” and may be related to naval pirates who attacked settlements in such areas. But as the definition is unknown, I would add my own, based my interpretation of Viking history.

I suggest that the word “Viking” is based on the expression: “Vi kings” and would today be translated to “We, the kings” or “We are your kings”.

My conclusion is based on the old Germanic word “King” meaning a mixture of ruler, war leader, judge, priest and the word “Vi” which is the Scandinavian word for the English “we”, which it also seems to be the origin to. I suggest that the Vikings became know as what they expressed during their conquests.

In general Scandinavians is referred to as “Norse” and possibly feared the Vikings as much as any other settlement around the shores of northern Europe. Norse settlements around the Baltic Sea were focused on farming, fishing, hunting and of course trading. It seems like it’s the trade expeditions and foreign settlements that later, in the 18th century, related Scandinavians with the word “Viking” and a more peaceful nature. Generally speaking, the Norwegians expanded to the north and west, the Danes to England, settling in the Danelaw, and the Swedes, (called the Rus) to the east.

Viking Raids

The earliest recorded interception with Vikings were in 787, in Portland, were they were mistaken as merchants by a Royal officer. As he tried to convince them to pay the royal trade tax fees, they killed him. For the next 200 years, European history is filled with tales of Vikings and their conquests. Vikings exerted influence throughout the coastal areas of Ireland and Scotland, and conquered and colonized large parts of England. They traveled up the rivers of France and Spain, and gained control of areas in Russia and along the Baltic coast. Stories tell of raids in the Mediterranean and as Far East as the Caspian Sea.

The Varangian Rus

The “Vikings” were those Scandinavians who traveled westward while those who traveled eastward were called “Varangians” meaning “sworn men”. This meaning will encounter interesting context later in this dossier. The Varangians were generally Swedes, also called the “Rus”, and they accomplished quit extraordinary quests. For example “Oleg” conquered Kiev, founded Kievan Rus and attacked Constantinople and “Rurik” founded the Rus rule in Eastern Europe, which later became Russian Empire.

An interesting story regarding the Kievan Rus, from the year 862, tells us that there was no law among the tribes around Kiev and they said to themselves: “Let us seek a prince who may rule over us, and judge us according to custom.” The Chuds, the Slavs, the Krivichs and the Ves then went overseas to the Varangian Rus (The Swedes) and said, “Our land is great and rich, but there is no order in it. Come reign as princes, rule over us”. Three brothers took with them all the Rus and came.

The Varangian Guard

Varangians first appear in the Byzantine world in 839, there they did both trade and raid the Byzantines for a century. In year 988 the relation with the Byzantines was enhanced thru a marriage between Kievan Prince Vladimir the Great (Varangian) and Basil II’s (ruler of Constantinople) sister Anna. In exchange Vladimir gave 6000 Varangian soldiers to Basil to use as his own personal bodyguard. The most famous member of them was Harald Hardrada, who before he joined the guard had campaigned in North Africa and Jerusalem. Harald returned to Scandinavia year 1043 and later became King Harald III of Norway. Harald died in the early parts of the naval invasion of Hastings, England in year 1066, but yet managed to prepare for the Norman victory.

Another famous member of the guard was Halfdans, who may be the world first successful graffiti painter, as he has “tagged” the inside of church Hagia Sofia Church in Constantinople with runes that still today is readable. The Varangian guard was the only element of the Byzantine army to successfully defend Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade.

A New World Exists

Viking, Erik the Red sailed west and discovered Iceland and Greenland in about year 980, were he created settlements. Erik’s son, Leif Erikson, later reached North America and settled in what he named “Vinland” or the “land of the grapes”. Archaeologists have found Viking weapons and tools in the regions of Newfoundland, Canada. The Vikings abandoned their settlements after about 35 years.

The North Men

One group of Vikings from Norway settled and founded Normandy in northwest France. England was invaded in 1066 by the Norman ruler, William the Conqueror. This initiated a three hundred year period were England would be ruled by kings who did not speak English. The Norman kings imported many French traditions, adopted the French language and completely destroyed the English rule. They created a French military state, seized English land and destroyed and English opposition.

William also ordered the Tower of London to be built to protect the Capital and to remind the English people that the Normans were the rulers. The Tower remains standing today. Norman conquests also resulted in centuries of conflicts between England and France. The two nations fought the “Hundred Years War” between 1336 and 1453, a war which included the colonization race of America. England became a target of Napoleon who was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. The two nations did not truly become allies until the 20th century, when they as allied forces defeated Germany in two World Wars.

The End of the Viking Age

As Christianity was introduced into Scandinavia in the 11th century, the Norse people (Today called Vikings) were converted to Christianity. Their gods and structures of leadership were by time replaced with new Christian ideals. As new trade routes were created, contacts with foreign settlements by time died out. Those who were knows as Vikings by time became the European knights, Nobles, and even Kings who merged into general public or died at one of many battlefields of the Middle Ages. Those who didn’t coupe with Christianity continued to battle against the Church and formed early Protestantism, which I will talk more about later in this dossier.

Carolingian Empire

In the present regions of Spain and Portugal, the so called “Moors” lived in the 8th century. They were Muslims and became defeated by the Christian Frank Charles Martel at Poitiers in year 732. This was the raise of the Carolingian Empire which by time gained gratitude from leading Franks as well as the Popes of Rome.

The Carolingians displaced the last Merovingian king, Childeric in 751, whose house had ruled today’s regions of France and Germany between 5th and 8th century. The son of Pippin “The short”, Charlemagne (Latin: Carolus Magnus, adjective form: “Carolingian”), became King of the Franks and the founding Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, crowned by Pope Leo III in year 800. The Carolingians (also known as the “Carlovingians”) were a dynasty of rulers that controlled the Frankish realm from 8th to the 10th century.

Charlemagne was buried in his own Cathedral in Aachen after his death, 814. He was succeeded by his son, Louis the Pious, who later divided the Empire into three kingdoms, for his own sons to rule. The West parts became today’s France, middle parts became the short-lived kingdom of Lotharingia and the East part became the kernel of the Holy Roman Empire.

The last of the Carolingians, Louis the Child, born in Bavaria, died in the year 911 and was eventually succeeded by the dukes of the stem duchies also referred to as the “Ottonians”. The Ottonian dynasty sometimes is regarded as being the first dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire, but Charlemagne still is known as the original founder.

India’s Enlightened Gift to the World

The part of Asia which today is India was early in terms of science and logic. Enlightened Hindus in around 400 BC initiated our today used numerals. Why should this be seen as a big thing? Well, major parts of the western civilization used Roman numerals, which wasn’t a good system for greater calculations. In fact the early Indians did calculate the mass of the sun about 1000 years before Copernicus.

The Indian numerals were introduced to the Arabs in the late 8th century. The Arabs adopted them and thereby became fast and precise mathematicians. As the Arabs also were more “mobile” than the Indians, Indian numerals became known as the “Arabic numerals” and still are. The Arabs expanded mathematics with algebras and fractions and used their skills to become the time leaders in science and logic. Economic calculations also were essence in trades and the Arab way was a lot better than the European methods.

Of course this became a major issue as the Romans considered their own civilization to be the most advanced and intellectual that existed. When the Arabs showed better intellectual skills, the Roman Empire became weakened as many by time lost their faith in the Roman proclaimed supremacy. The digit “zero” was especially seen upon with great suspiciousness. How could a definition of nothing mean so much? The Arabic “sifr”, a literal translation of the Indian Sanskrit “śūnya” meaning void or empty became “zefiro” in Italian and “zero” in the Venetian dialect, giving the modern English word. The western suspiciousness of the zero also became the root to the modern English word “cipher”, which is the name of algorithms that are used to encrypt information. This of course should be included as one the reasons why the Roman Empire collapsed and also as one of the reasons why the Roman Emperor Constantine created the Byzantine Empire – were alternative ideas and religious transparency was encouraged.

In fact reading about pope Silvester II, known as Gerbert d’Aurillac (year 950–1003) one can discern relations between Constantine the Great, the Arabs and conflicts within the Roman Catholic Church. Gerbert was a very successful monk and mathematician, who studied in the city of Barcelona, Spain and possibly also in the Islamic cities of Córdoba and Seville. As a tutor to the young Otto II, who later became King of Italy and Germany and also a Holy Roman Emperor (year 973), Gerbert became more of a politician than mathematician. He was involved when Hugh Capet became king of France in year 987, ending the Carolingian line of kings. Gerbert became archbishop of Reims, year 988, and after being the teacher of Otto III, and Pope Gregory V he became pope in year 999. He took the name Silvester II in relations to Pope Silvester I who was the advisor of Constantine the Great.

Interesting knowledge regarding Otto III was that he devised a dream of restoration of a universal Empire formed by the union of the Papacy, Byzantium and ancient Rome with himself at the head of a theocratic state. However as soon as Otto left Rome the city magnate Crescentius II and the nobles of Rome deposed Gregory and installed a so called antipope named John XVI. This revolt was suppressed, when Otto marched upon Rome and restored order. Crescentius was degraded in public and got his nose, ears, tongue and eyes cut of/out. Then he was sent to the monastery of Fulda, in Germany, where he lived for another 15 years. Both Otto and Gerbert (Pope Silvester II) had to flee as the Roman populace revolted against their rule in year 1001. They both died when trying to regain the power of Rome. According to the Legend, Gerbert was a sorcerer in league with the Devil and actually won the papacy by playing dice with him. Well, this kind of legends seems too follow enlightened individuals that get into high level conflicts with the Roman Catholic Church. Even if Gerbert tried to introduce the Arabic numerals along with the more advanced mathematics, Europe didn’t seem to be mature enough to use them at the time.

The Arabic numerals did not become generally used in Europe until after year 1202 when the Italian Leonardo Pisano, known as “Fibonacci” published the “Liber Abaci” (Book of Calculation). This book contained what he had learnt about the Arabic numerals during his time a trading post in North Africa were trading with Arabs were common. Commercial bookkeeping, conversion of weights and measures, the calculation of interests, money-changing, and numerous other applications exploded after the understanding was spread over Europe using this book.

The original Indian numerals, enhanced by the Arabs, are probably the world’s most common used language that exists today. This enlightened gift from the ancient Indians has become of immeasurable value for the world of today.

Holy Roman Empire (1st Reich)

An Empire Without Borders?

The Empire was frightening because of its fuzzy leadership and what it was capable of.

The Holy Roman Empire, existing between around year 800 and 1800, was a unique and a very frightening Empire. It was unique in the sense that it was no real nation state. It had no real territorial boarders of its own, but it was more than a confederation of territories ruled by numerous secular and ecclesiastical princes, prelates, counts and imperial knights. Thereby it can be hard to understand its entity. The Empire was ruled mainly by German kings who were not considered Emperors until crowned by the Pope. The relation between territorial leaders and the Pope was unique during the middle Ages.

Raise of the Papal States

Some say the parts of Rome were the Vatican is located was considered sacred even before the arrival of Christianity. The first church, The Basilica, was built on the supposed tomb of Saint Peter in the year 326, by Constantine. This was just before he moved to Byzantium which he renamed to “Constantinople”. From then on the area started to become more populated. Popes in their secular role increased their control over the regions, through the so called Papal States. While the Byzantine Empire slowly declined, the Papal States gained both power and influence.

Were the Popes the Real Emperors of the Holy Reich?

The title Papa (“Pope”) or Pater Patrum (“Father of Fathers”) wasn’t officially used until year 384 when Siricius became Pope. The list of Popes, or heads of the church, goes back all the way to Saint Peter, year 30–67. He was the disciple of Jesus from whom according to Matthew 16:18:19: “he received the keys to the kingdom of heaven”.

It must also be said that elections of Popes has in many cases been surrounded with internal conflicts, which time to time resulted in so called antipopes. Some Popes have been banished and even some Emperors have been excommunicated over the years. I must say that the Catholic Church’s history itself is very interesting.

The Pope who is the head of the Catholic Church also carries many other titles, which give a hint of his importance:

Upraise of a New Empire

As people united themselves under Christianity, the power of the Papal States grew. After the first Crusade in year 1095 the Papal States became aware of the peoples will to leave homes to help the Church, which of course also increased the papal power.

The Inquisitions and the Crusades

The Empire has been accused for many horrific events in history; most of them are related to the Inquisitions and the Crusades. The so called “Crusades” initially was created when the Pope asked the people to help the Church. They became series of several military campaigns sanctioned by the Papacy between the 11th and the 13th centuries. Originally, the aims were to re-capture the Holy Land from the Muslims, but later on they was directed to other targets also. Some of the Crusades are even by historians compared to the Nazi’s persecution of Jews during World War II. At least nine larger crusades are known to be sanctioned by the Papacy and a set of smaller one’s.

The inquisitions, however, were permanent institutions within the Catholic Church. In fact there were four known Inquisitions, who acted like courts upon faith and devotion. Two of them below:

The Cathar Inquisition

The Cathar Inquisition was established in 1229 by Pope Gregory IX to root out the Cathars in southern France. On March 16, 1244 a large and symbolically important execution took place, where leaders of Catharism together with more than 200 Cathar laity were thrown into an enormous fire. The Cathar Inquisition continued into 14th century and exterminated hundred thousands of Cathar’s which thereby almost totally wiped out Catharism. The Survivors of Catharism is believed to have been involved in the early movement of Protestantism.

The Spanish Inquisition

The Spanish Inquisition, which is the most known Inquisition, was founded 1478 by Pope Sixtus IV on demands from King Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. It was the Spanish Abbott Torquemada who needed a more effective tool to expose and eliminate false Jews and Moors (who hadn’t fully converted to Christianity). The Moors in Spain was the remaining Muslims since King Boabdil (Last king of the Moors) was defeated. The Spanish inquisition is by many agreed to be one of the bloodiest manhunts in history. It was a catholic success and its methods were also copied to many none Spanish areas of the world.

Even if the Spanish Inquisition is seen as one the worst parts of catholic history, areas were the Inquisition didn’t reach was in many cases even worse. Inquisition had a working structure of high juridical and theological judges. Even if their methods were bloody it couldn’t be compared with the cruelty in situations were the Inquisition wasn’t in control. The ideals were most often the same, but methods were a lot worse when others took work in their own hands and burned and tortured Jews, witches, homosexuals, Protestants etc. In these cases even a disliked neighbor could be burned if back talked to the ones who acted as judges. Many died in cases were the even the Inquisition would have freed. But it was the Inquisition who was the reference that allowed this to take place. The formal Spanish Inquisition was ended in 1834.

In our modern time, there are controversial historians who relate the Holocaust to Inquisitional acts undertaken by the Nazi’s. This thought really creates the shivers and frankly, isn’t the reason to that even more frightening than a possible relation between the Catholic Church and the Nazi’s during World War II?

The Renaissance

The term “Rebirth” (French: Renaissance) was first used by the Italian historian Giorgio Vasari, year 1550. He described the artistic and scientific activities starting in Italy in the 13th century as new era which created a new life for the whole society. People rediscovered ancient learning’s of art and science as well initiated intellectual activities which resulted in a revitalization of European culture in general. The Renaissance marks the transitional period between the end of the middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Age.

The Reformation

As the Renaissance open the minds for new ways of thinking, it paved the way for criticism. On October 31, 1517, Martin Luthers so called “95 Theses” were nailed to the door of the Castle Church as an open invitation to debate with Catholic leadership. The 95 Theses were widely copied and printed and within two months they were known throughout whole Europe. This was the first known event in history were media’s role became a power of itself, which also led to increased support for the media and the press.

These events became the main front in the so called the Protestant Reformation movement which was a series of attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church in Western Europe. This weakened the Church and many local dukes saw the chance to oppose the Emperor which led to series of conflicts. The Empire became divided into religious formations which led to establishment of new institutions like for example: Lutheranism, the Reformed churches and Anabaptists. This also led to a Counter-Reformation within the Roman Catholic Church, which parallel too many other events also included the creation of secret order societies like the Jesuits, Capuchins, Ursulines and Theatines. A century of conflicts all over Europe emerged. The so called “Thirty Years War” (1618-1648) initiated when Bohemians rebelled against the Emperor. A devastating war for the Empire, were powers like France and Sweden intervened and seized considerable chunks of territory for themselves.

Death of René Descartes

The well known philosopher Descartes officially died of pneumonia during a few months visit to Stockholm, Sweden 1650. He was invited by Queen Kristina who was know to be in a situation were she was considering turning to Catholicism. In 1980, a 330 year old letter posted from Queen Kristina’s personal doctor was found in the archives at the Leyden University of Holland. The letter contained information that raises questions concerning Descartes death. Was he poisoned to death? If he was, did it have anything to-do with Queen Kristina’s interest in Catholicism?

The Decline

The slow decline of the Empire now had begun. The Order of the Teutonic Knights, who had been the Catholic successful brut force army since the early days of protecting pilgrims, was also declining and suffered a great loss when the Grandmaster, Albert of Brandenburg, converted to Lutheranism in 1525. The Habsburgs (English: Hawk Castle) which already was a major ruling house of Europe, maintained to be a strong, with the still loyal Teutonic Knights.

During the 18th century, the Habsburgs were involved in many European conflicts, which almost all were defeats. The last Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire were the Archdukes of Austria, which all were products of the Habsburgs ruling house. Turning into 19th century they became the primary target of Napoleon and his French Army which later dissolved the Empire formally on August 6, 1806 when the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II abdicated.

The Holy Roman Empire was ended.

The Austrian Empire

However, when Francis II lost the Emperor of the Roman Empire title, he instead declared himself the Emperor of the Austrian Empire. Francis II’s family would continue to call themselves Emperors until 1918. The still active Order of the Teutonic Knights remained by their side.

Since the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo, June 1815, Europe had experienced almost a century of peace. Beside some Ethnic minorities who made them heard in the regions of the Habsburgs, no-one could assume that Europe stood was on the edge of global scale war. In the summer of 1914 a minor event shocked the entire continent and the “The Great War” was a fact.

The Beginning of the Holy State

A secret society named “The Carbonari” became known in the early 19th century. They created the early revolutionary activities in Naples against the King of the two Sicilies, Fredinand I. They forced the king to concede their own written constitution in 1820. One year later the Carbonari’s little revolution was ended by agents of the “Holy Alliance” between Austria, Prussia and Russia mastered by the Habsburgs. The Carbonaries as well as many other liberal were executed.

The Carbonari’s little revolution however was the beginning of a movement which later unified Italy and widened the gape between the powerful Roman Church and the newly formed state of Italy. In 1870, the Italian government declared war against the Papal States. The Italian army entered Rome on September 20. Later the Italian government offered the Leonine City to Pope Piux XI, who rejected it.

Pope Pius IX declared himself a “prisoner in the Vatican”, although he was not actually restrained from coming and going. The period of the so called “prisoner popes” had begun. For the next 59 years, the popes refused to recognize the new Italian state and refused to leave the Vatican.

This period ended with the socialist revolution in 1929 when the fascist leader Mussolini took control over Italy. The so called “Lateran Treaties” established the Vatican as a state and a concordat defined the civil and religious relations, with motto: “free church in a free state”.

The holy state was created.